It has been recognized that a balanced diet should include an adequate level of dietary fiber. There are many natural food sources of dietary fiber such as cereals, particularly bran, that are recognized as good dietary fiber sources.
However, it would seem that a high proportion of diets of people of the developed countries contain an inadequate level of dietary fiber. An inadequate level of dietary fiber has been linked with a number of diseases that may be broadly classified as metabolic and gastrointestinal. Some examples of these diseases are diabetes mellitus, diverticular disease and colonic cancer. It has also been found that some forms of dietary fiber are useful in lowering blood cholesterol.
Additionally, some types of fiber have been prescribed for reducing scours in calves, and a Plantago seed supplement has been described to help reduce animal stress conditions, prevent or treat scours, and promote the growth of ruminants. Also, some fiber supplements have been described for increasing the rate of weight gain per unit weight of protein consumed by ruminants and monogastrics.
One attempted approach to providing adequate levels of dietary fiber has entailed manufacturing processed foods that have a high dietary fiber content. Such foods include breakfast cereals, snack bars, bread and the like. Typically bran, especially outer tissues of the kernel, including pericarp from a variety of cereal sources such as wheat, maize or corn, oats, rice, pea and other pulses, barley, triticale, sorghum, milo, potato, tapioca, cassaya, sago and other plant extracts have been used as fiber sources.
More recently, resistant starches have been recognized as a potential source of dietary fiber. Resistant starches are starches that are highly resistant to hydration and, when ingested, pass through the upper regions of the gastrointestinal tract largely unchanged.
To date the only natural sources that contain a significant amount of resistant starch are green bananas and raw potatoes. Such resistant starch sources do, however, present substantial problems in formulating satisfactory food products, such as low gelatinization temperatures that are typically on the order of about 60° C. to about 80° C. It is also possible to produce resistant starch by extensively processing, namely repeatedly cooking and cooling, starch pastes.
Copending International Patent Application No. PCT/AU93/00389 that was filed on Jul. 30, 1993 and is entitled “High Amylose Starch and Resistant Starch Fractions” discloses a hybrid maize seed that is capable of yielding a starch having an amylose content of more than about 80%. Application No. PCT/AU93/00389 further discloses a maize starch derived from such seed having an amylose content of more than about 80%. This starch was designated as “High Amylose Starch” in view of the surprising high amylose content. A number of examples of compositions including high amylose starch with a variety of different number of food applications were given in Application No. PCT/AU93/00389 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,303,174 B1.
Surprisingly, it was found that the aforementioned high amylose starch is high in dietary fiber content and is a resistant starch. Moreover, it was found that such starches may be advantageously incorporated into food products to achieve enhanced levels of dietary fiber content. Additionally, these starches have relatively high gelatinization temperatures, typically on the order of about 160° C. to about 170° C.
Also of interest to the present invention is information relating to the occurrence and treatment of scours (i.e. diarrhea and dysentery), especially in ruminants. Ruminants, such as cattle, have a four compartment stomach, as opposed to the single stomach that human beings have. Two of these stomach compartments are the abomasum and the rumen. In a mature ruminant, fermentation of feed in the rumen provides the majority of energy and protein to the ruminant. On the other hand, in a newborn ruminant, the rumen is substantially undeveloped and the abomasum is the primary stomach compartment for digestion and nutrient assimilation. Consequently, young ruminants are typically fed a liquid diet that is digestible in the abomasum. This liquid diet initially only contains readily digestible nutrients, since the abomasum is incapable of digesting sufficient amounts of more complex nutrients that typically form the majority of the nutrition found in solid feeds.
While still being fed the liquid diet that is digestible in the abomasum, young ruminants are gradually introduced to a solid feed that contains readily digestible carbohydrates to support development of the rumen. Volatile fatty acids produced during fermentation of readily digestible carbohydrates support rumen tissue development and therefore control the rate of rumen development. Also, volatile fatty acids that are produced in the rumen help support development of microorganisms that break down the solid feed and transform components of the solid feed into microbial protein and volatile fatty acids. After the rumen has developed sufficiently to support the nutritional requirements of the young ruminant, the liquid diet is typically withdrawn and the nutritional requirements of the young ruminant are thereafter generally supplied by solid feed.
Weaning occurs when liquid feed is withdrawn from the diets of young mammals, such as young ruminants. As used herein, the term “mammal” refers to non-human animals. Thus, as used herein, the term “pre-weaning period” refers to the period when nutrients are predominantly or entirely supplied in liquid form to mammals, such as ruminants (including calves) or monogastrics (including pigs), as part of the liquid feed. Correspondingly, the term “post-weaning period” refers to the period when nutrients are no longer predominantly or entirely provided to mammals, such as ruminants (including calves) or monogastrics (including pigs), in the form of liquid feed. The post-weaning period for ruminants is sometimes also referred to as the “ruminant period.”
For ruminants, the pre-weaning period may also be broken down into a pre-ruminant period and a transition period. The “pre-ruminant period” is the time period when only nutrients in liquid form (as the liquid feed) are provided to the young ruminant. The “transition period” is the time period when the young ruminant is continuing to receive liquid nutrients while also receiving gradually increasing amounts of solid feed, such as dry calf starter, to support development of the rumen in anticipation of weaning. The transition period (and thus also the pre-weaning period) ends, and the post-weaning period (also referred to as the ruminant period for ruminants) begins when the liquid feed that supplies liquid nutrients is predominantly or entirely withdrawn from the young ruminant's diet and the young ruminant is predominantly or entirely fed only solid feed, such as dry calf starter.
Typical liquid feeds for young mammals, such as young ruminants and monogastrics, include fluid milk or fluid milk replacers. Fluid milk replacers are frequently substituted in place of fluid milk because fluid milk that is produced by mature, lactating mammals, especially milk produced by mature, lactating ruminants, is generally more valuable when sold to consumers or when used to manufacture food products that are sold to consumers. Thus, fluid milk replacers that are produced to simulate fluid milk are generally substituted in place of fluid milk for feeding young mammals, especially when feeding young ruminants and monogastrics. Fluid milk replacers may be based upon dairy components and non-dairy components that are combined to provide nutrient and palatability characteristics approximating the nutrient and palatability characteristics of fluid milk. Milk replacers are typically marketed in powdered form to avoid the higher transportation and storage costs of distributing fluid milk replacer. Powdered, pelleted, and granular milk replacers are mixed with water prior to use to form fluid milk replacers that are provided to the young mammals. The formulation and feeding of fluid milk replacers is well-known in the art.
Young mammals, when provided only with nutrients in liquid form (as the liquid feed), are quite susceptible to diarrhea and dysentery especially during the pre-ruminant period for young ruminants or during the pre-weaning period for ruminants and non-ruminants alike. These instances of diarrhea and dysentery are sometimes characterized as scours, especially in the field of veterinary medicine. Scours may seriously compromise the health of affected young mammals (such as young ruminants and young monogastrics) by causing loss of water, bicarbonate, and electrolytes, such as sodium ions and potassium ions, from the blood and body fluids of the young mammals. A number of different factors, such as mechanical (higher feeding rates—especially for milk and fluid milk replacers), nutritional (feed quality), and/or environmental (stress and/or disease) factors, may contribute to scours development and progression in young mammals, such as young ruminants and young monogastrics.
When any of these factors irritates the intestine of a young mammal to a sufficient degree, the young mammal's body attempts to neutralize, isolate, destroy, and/or flush out the irritant using water. Indeed, the feces of a young mammal with scours may contain as much as five to ten times more water than the feces of a young mammal not suffering from scours. Loss of water that is employed in this fight against scours causes the young mammal to quickly become dehydrated and may cause the young mammal to die from dehydration, electrolyte loss, and/or increased blood acidity within just a few hours. At the very least, even if the young mammal recovers from scours, the growth rate of young mammals affected by scours typically decreases dramatically during, and for some time after, a scours outbreak. Consequently, dairy farmers and livestock producers alike are greatly interested in techniques for economically reducing the incidence of scours in young mammals.
Besides reducing the incidence of scours, dairy farmers and livestock producers are also greatly interested in techniques for economically achieving enhanced milk replacer consumption rates and enhanced rates of mammal weight gain, since such techniques eventually will have the effect, upon maturation of the young mammals, of beneficially reducing milk and meat (such as beef, pork, and lamb) production costs. Also, dairy farmers and livestock producers recognize that the care and feeding of livestock prior to weaning play an important role in determining the amount and quality of products produced by the mammals, upon maturation. As an example, the age of dairy cows at freshening and the onset of lactation may be reduced by modifying the nutrient mix and nutrient composition in feed the dairy cows consume and by inducing the cows to gain weight more quickly during the pre-weaning prior to freshening. Also, in cattle ranching operations, increasing the rate of weight gain by young ruminants beneficially reduces the time required for producing cattle with a size that is suitable for market.
Furthermore, in both dairy operations and livestock operations, it is generally desirable to increase the feed efficiency of young mammals. As used herein, the term “feed efficiency” refers to the ratio, over a select time period for one or more particular mammal(s), of (1) the weight gained by the mammal(s) versus (2) the weight of feed consumed by the mammals. As the ruminants more efficiently transform ingested feed into weight gain, the feed efficiency ratio, and consequently the feed efficiency, of the mammals increases, since less feed by the mammals is required to attain a unit amount of weight gain.
A major overall desire of dairy farmers and livestock producers alike is to reduce the overall cost to produce a product, such as milk or meat, with an acceptable level of quality. Depending upon numerous cost variables, such as the cost of feed, labor costs on the farm or ranch, and equipment and building costs on the farm or ranch, this desired cost reduction may be achieved by increasing the rate of weight gain by young mammals and/or increasing the feed efficiency of young mammals, while also reducing the incidence of health issues, such as scours and respiratory distress. Thus, dairy farmers and livestock producers, depending upon their particular cost variables, may employ improved mammalian health along with either enhanced rates of weight gain or increased feed efficiency or a combination of enhanced rates of weight gain and increased feed efficiency to reduce the cost of bringing milk and meat to the consumer market.
To complement liquid feeds fed to ruminants, such as cattle, prior to weaning, a number of additives and supplements have been developed for feeding calves along with the liquid feed during the pre-weaning period. These additives and supplements have been developed for a number of different purposes. For example, some additives and supplements have been developed to generally enhance the health of the young calves or help prevent or control development of specific conditions or ailments, such as scours. Additionally, some additives or supplements have been developed in an attempt to enhance appetite, enhance maturation rate, and/or enhance weight gain.
In this regard, various veterinary pharmaceutical compositions have been developed to help prevent or inhibit development of certain ailments in mammals, such as ruminants and monogastrics. Also, numerous vitamin compositions have been developed to help enhance the general health of mammals, such as ruminants and monogastrics, and/or to help prevent or inhibit development of ailments or conditions in mammals, such as ruminants and monogastrics. Additionally, some types of fiber have been prescribed for reducing scours in calves, and a Plantago seed supplement has been described to help reduce animal stress conditions, prevent or treat scours, and promote growth of some mammals. Also, some fiber supplements have been described for increasing the rate of weight gain per unit weight of protein consumed by some mammals.
Though the various mammalian feed supplements and additives that have been proposed and/or practiced over the years have enhanced the overall knowledge base with respect to mammalian feeding, these feed supplements and additives, as well as feeding techniques that employ these feed supplements and additives, have not yet fully identified, addressed, or optimized options for maintaining mammalian health; increasing weight gain rates by mammals, such as ruminants and monogastrics; or increasing the feed efficiency of mammals, such as ruminants and monogastrics. Thus, dairy farmers and livestock producers alike are still in need of new and better approaches to feeding mammals, such as ruminants and monogastrics, that maintain the health of, increase weight gain rates by, and/or increase the feed efficiency of mammals, such as ruminants and monogastrics. The method of the present invention achieves reduced scours incidence, reduced respiratory distress, enhanced weight gain rates and increased feed efficiencies in young mammals, such as young ruminants and monogastrics, and thereby satisfies this need of dairy farmers and livestock producers.